Here are the Chapters we are reviewing for the Semester exam in Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4
Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8
Define Anatomy & Physiology
Complementarity of structure and function
Structural hierarchy: atoms- molecules- cells- tissues- organs- systems-organisms
Maintenance of life
Characteristics of life:
- maintenance of boundaries
- movement
- Digestion
- Metabolism
- Excretion
- Reproduction
- Growth
Distinguish from : Survival needs
- Nutrients
- Oxygen
- Water
- body temp
- atmospheric pressure.
Homeostasis: Definition
Positive vs. Negative feedback
examples: positive: labor and blood clotting
negative: body temp, and blood glucose levels.
Imbalance in homeostasis result in diseases or disorders.
Anatomical position and directional terms:
axial vs. appendicular;
chart page14
chart page 16
sections:
(median sagittal), sagittal - right and left parts
frontal (coronal): anterior and posterior parts
transverse (x-section, horizontal section) Inferior and Superior parts.
Body cavities - dorsal vs. ventral
cranial & vertebral thoracic & abdominopelvic
4 abdominal quadrants
upper right & upper left
lower right & lower left
formed by sagittal and transverse section through umbilicus
minor cavities: oral, nasal, orbital, middle ear, synovial
Define matter & different forms of energy
Composition of matter and atomic structure.
including Atomic #, mass, weight and isotopes
Molecules vs. Compounds
mixtures: concentrations of mixtures
solutions
colloids
suspensions
Distinguishing mixtures from compounds
homogeneous vs. heterogeneous
Chemical bonds and binding
electrons determine bonding
Ionic bonds
Covalent bonds
Polar vs. Nonpolar
Hydrogen bonds
parts of chemical reactions
3 types of chemical reactions
synthesis (anabolic)
Decomposition (Catabolic)
Exchange (Displacement) e.g. oxidation- reduction (redox)
Oxidation: loses electrons (or by losing hydrogen atoms)
Reduction: gains electrons (or gains hydrogen atoms)
exergonic vs. endergonic reactions
Reversibility
Factors influencing rate of chemical reaction
temperature
particle size
concentration
catalysts (enzymes)
carbohydrates CHO- What they are and how to calculate formulas.
monosaccharides
disaccharides
polysaccharides
DI & Poly- formed by dehydration syntheses.
Functions:
Lipids
neutral fats
phospholipids
steroids
Protein
Protein denaturation
Enzymes
Nucleic acids
RNA vs. DNA
ATP: high energy phosphate bonds.
Intro to cells as basic structural & functional units
Organelles of the cell
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
ribosomes
ER (rough & smooth)
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Microtubules
centrioles
cilia & flagella
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Plasma membrane properties
-fluid mosaic model of phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic head and
hydrophobic tails
-cholesterol
- glycolipids
- transmembrane protein
- peripheral proteins
- glycoproteins
- glycocalyx allows for recognition of cell
Membrane transport:
selectively permeable vs. permeable vs. impermeable
Diffusion:
simple diffusion
osmosis- Tonicity; isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic
Facilitated diffusion
Filtration
Active transport- Na - K pump
Exocytosis & Endocytosis
Cell growth & replication- Cell Cycle & Mitosis, Cytokinises
Epithelial tissues / characteristics:
simple
squamous
cuboidal
columnar
stratified
squamous
cuboidal
columnar
pseudostratified columnar
Transitional
Connective tissues:
Characteristics: vascularization
Elements of: ground substance, fibers, cells
Loose & dense connective tissues: (includes all but bone, cartilage, & blood)
loose: Areolar
Adipose
Reticular
Dense Dense regular: tendons & ligaments
dense irregular (fibrous connective)
Cartilage - 3 types
Hyaline
Elastic
fibrocartilage
Bone
Blood
Muscle tissue
smooth
cardiac
skeletal
Nervous tissue
neurons - structure/ function
support cells - astrocytes, neuroglia
Overview of skin
Epidermis
cells
layers
Dermis
layers
lines of cleavage
Dermal & epidermal ridges
Skin color
melanin
carotene
hemoglobin
cyanosis
Erythema
Pallor
jaundice
bronzing
bruises
Hair/ nails
Sudoriferous & sebaceous glands (apocrine vs. eccrine glands) ceruminous
Introduce function of skin
protection
chemical barrier
physical barrier
biological barrier
role of skin in body temperature regulation
Homeostatic imbalance
burns
first, second, third degree
using rules of nines to assess burns
Skin Cancers
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Squamous cell Carcinoma
Malignant Melanomas
Porphyria
Cartilage vs. Bone
function of bone
classification of bones
long: includes all bones of limbs except patella, carpals, tarsals, clavicle
short: cube- shaped; includes carpals, tarsals, patella
irregular: vertebrae, hip bone
flat: sternum, ribs, most skull bones, scapula
spongy (cancellous) vs. compact (dense) bone
structure of a long bone
Bone markings
Compact vs. spongy structure / location
Osteogenesis - bone development
Ossification
Bone growth
Bone homeostasis
Remolding
PTH and calcitonin actions on osteoblasts & osteoclasts
hypercalcemia & daily Ca2 requirements
Common types of fractures
Osteoporosis
Osteomalacia & Rickets
Introduction to skeleton: 206 named bones
Axial vs. Appendicular skeleton
80 bones 126 bones
Skull- major skull bones are mostly flat bones
protects the brain, divided into cranial / facial bones
joined together by sutures except for mandible which is joined by
the only freely movable joint in skull
Major skull sutures are:
coronal-between frontal / parietals
sagittal- between parietals
squamosal-between parietal and temporal
lambdoidal- between parietal / occipital
remind them that table 7.1 is color-coded for the bones
Bones of skull
-cranium- frontal bone-single bone supraorbital foramen, 2
frontal sinuses
- parietal bones-2-part of all 4 major sutures
-occipital-single bone; foramen magnum, occipital condyles
-temporal-2-form temple, external auditory meatus, styloid
process, mastoid process,
-Ethmoid-1-forms roof of nasal cavity; paired cribiform plates.
ethmoid sinuses.
Sutural (wormian bones)
Facial bones:
Mandible-forms only moveable joint; contains mental foramen
2 Maxillary bones form the upper jaw
2 zygomatic bones form part of cheekbones along with temporal
bones
2 nasal bones form bridge of nose
lacrimal bones
Paranasal sinuses:
found in : frontal, ethmoid, maxillary, and sphenoid bones
The hyoid bone: only bone that does not articulate with another bone.
Vertebral column:
3 main types of vertebrae:
1. Cervical: first 7. Have tranverse foramen and bifid spinous
process. named C1-C7. C1=atlas; C2=axis
2. Thoracic: next 12: articulate with the 12 pairs of ribs. Have
rib facets and spinous process has only 1 prong.
3. Lumbar: Last 5: largest of the 3 types. articulate with the
sacrum.
Sacrum: formed by 5 fused vertebrae. articulates with the coccyx.
Has sacral foramen
Coccyx: "tailbone". formed from 3-5 fused vertebrae. It is a
vestigial structure.
Intervertebral discs
The Bony Thorax::
Sternum: 3parts:
manubrium: articulates with the clavicle and the first rib
pair.
body: articulates with rib pairs #2-7
xiphoid process: articulates only with the sternal body
Ribs: First 7 pairs: true ribs
next 3 pairs: false ribs
last 2 pairs: floating ribs
Appendicular skeleton:
Arms:
Clavicles:
Scapula:
humerus:
ulna:
radius:
carpal bones:
metacarpal bones:
phalanges:
Legs:
Coxal bone: 3 parts:
Ischium:
Ilium:
Pubis:
Femur:
Tibia:
Fibula:
tarsals:
metatarsals
Classification of joints:
Ampharthroses:
Diarthroses:
Synarthroses:
Immovable (fibrous) joints:
Semimoveable (cartilaginous) joints:
Freely moveable (synovial) joints:
Sutures:
Synovial joints:
parts:
articular cartilage:
joint cavity:
articular capsule:
synovial membrane:
synovial fluid:
Bursa:
Tendons:
Ligaments:
Types of joint movement:
1. gliding:
2. flexion:
3. extension:
4. abduction:
5. adduction:
6. rotation:
7. dorsiflexion and plantar flexion:
8. eversion and inversion:
9. Supination:
10: pronation:
Types of synovial joints:
1. ball and socket:
2. pivot:
3. hinge:
4. condyloid:
5. saddle:
6. plane (gliding):
Sprains:
Strains:
Arthritis:
a. gouty:
b. rheumatoid:
c. osteoarthritis:
Bursitis:
Muscles and Muscle tissue:
Functions of muscle:
1. movement:
2. posture:
3. stabilizing joints:
4. generating heat:
Functional characteristics:
1. excitability:
2. contractility:
3. extensibility:
4. elasticity:
Structure of muscle:
muscle cell=muscle fiber:
-surrounded by endomysium
muscle fibers grouped in fascicles
fascicles grouped into muscle(organs)
insertion:
origin:
tendon:
aponeurosis:
sarcoplasm:
myoglobin:
sarcomere:
naming skeletal muscles:
1. Location:
2. Shape of muscle:
3. relative size of muscle:
4. direction of muscle fibers:
5. number of origins:
6. locations of origins and or insertions:
7. action of muscle:
Major Skeletal muscles you should know:
Frontalis occipitalis
temporalis epicranial aponeurosis
masseter buccinator
trapezius platysma
zygomaticus sternocleidomastoid
orbicularis oris orbicularis oculi
deltoid biceps brachii
triceps brachii pronator teres
pectoralis major pectoralis minor
gluteus maximus gluteus minimus
brachioradialis brachialis
flexor carpi radialis flexor carpi ulnaris
extensor carpi radialis extensor carpi ulnaris
palmaris longus serratus anterior
subscapularis rectus abdominus
sartorius transversus abdominus
gastrocnemius external obliques
internal obliques rectus femoris
biceps femoris vastus lateralis
vastus intermedius vastus medialis
semitendonosis semimembranosis
gracilis soleus
tibialis anterior tibialis posterior
latissimus dorsi teres major
teres minor rhomboid major
peronius longus mentalis
risorius stylohyoid
sternohyoid ischiocavernosus
levator ani bulbospongiosus
sphinctor urethrae coccygeus
pronator teres flexor digitorum profundus
supinator adductor magnus
extensor hallucus plantaris
Choose one of the following and answer as completely as possible.
1. What is the integumentary system? What is the largest organ of the integumentary system?
What are the 3 major layers of this important organ? Where are the sudoriferous and
sebaceous glands found within these layers and what are their functions. Be sure to discuss
both types of sudoriferous glands. How does this organ work to maintain homeostasis in
relation to body temperature regulation?
2. What is homeostasis? What is the difference between negative and positive feedback?
Besides body temperature regulation, name 3 other forms of homeostasis which we have
studied this semester and state whether they are negative or positive feedback. Using one of
these three mechanisms, fully explain the mechanism including the original stimulus, the
response and how homeostasis is restored. Be sure to include all the systems of the body which
are involved. Be specific.
3. What is a tissue? What are the four major categories of tissues which are found in the body. For
each category, name three of the specific tissues describing their characteristics, locations,
and functions within the body.